Bahasa Inggris 2 #

Chapter 1 : Some, Any, Much, Many, A lot of, and  A few 

Difference between some and any :

1. Some is generally used in positive sentences. Any is generally used in negative sentences. 
2. Some is only used in a question when an offer is being made, or there is a request for something. Use any when you’re talking about something that is not specific and any is used in questions.

 Examples of Some and Any : 

Some

Positive sentences : 'I have some friends.' 

Offering : 'Would you like some milk?' 

Request : 'Can I borrow some money?'

Any 
Negative sentences: ‘I don't have any friends.' 

Questions: 'Is there any sugar?'

·        Difference between Much  and  Many :

1. Much is used for uncountable nouns. Many is used for countable nouns. 
2. The word much is used with a singular noun. The word many is used with a plural noun. 
3. Much is awkward in affirmative sentences, if not preceded by ‘so’, ‘too’, or ‘as’. Many can be used extensively in affirmative sentence. 

Examples of Much and Many :

 Much
Singular noun : ‘How much money does one man need?'
Uncountable nouns : ‘How much salt is there in this recipe?’

Many 
Plural noun : Many people limit themselves to what they think they can do.
Countable nouns : ‘How many books have you read?’

·         Difference between a lot of and a few : 

1.       We use a lot of in positive sentences, negative sentences and questions. This expression can be used with countable or uncountable nouns. A few can be used with countable nouns. 
2.       A lot of may be used as singular pronouns. A few are used with plural nouns.

Examples of a lot of and a few :  

•       A lot of : ‘I have a lot of friends who always stand by me.'
•       A few : ‘She has a few speeding tickets, so his insurance rate is higher than mine.’

 Chapter 2 : Article

·         Use of articles

1.       The is used to refer to specific or particular nouns. A/an is used to modify non-specific or non-particular nouns.
2.       We call the the definite article. A/an the indefinite article.  
   
3.       The is used to refer to a specific or particular member of a group. A/an is used to refer to a non-specific or non-particular member of the group.

·         Examples of article. 

•       "Let's read the book," I mean a specific book.  If I say, "Let's read a book," I mean any book rather than a specific book.
•       "I just saw the most popular movie of the year." There are many movies, but only one particular movie is the most popular. Therefore, we use the.

 Chapter 3 : Active and Passive sentence in Present form ; Present Simple, Present Continuous and Present perfect.

·         Active and Passive sentence in Present Simple form.

Formula :

-          Positive : Subjek + is/am/are + past participle/V3

-          Negative : Subjek + is/am/are + Not + Past Participle

-          Interrogative : is/am/are + Subjek + Past Participle   

Examples :

-          Active :

(+) Anita repairs the work immediately.

(-) Anita does not repair the work immediately.

(?) Does she repair the work immediately?

-          Passive :

(+) The work is repaired by her immediately.

(-) The work is not repaired by her immediately.

(?) Is the work repaired by her immediately?

·         Active and Passive sentence in Present Continous form.

1.       Active sentences in the present continuous tense have the following structure: Subject + is/are/am + -ing form of the verb + object.
2.        Passive sentences in the present continuous tense have the following structure: Object of the active sentence + is/are/am + being + past participle form of the verb + by + subject of the active sentence. 

Examples :

-          Active: I am reading a story.

-          Passive: A story is being read by me.

·         Active and Passive sentence in Present Perfect form. 

1.       Active sentences in the present perfect tense have the following structure: Subject + has/have + past participle form of the verb + object.
     2. Passive sentences in the present perfect tense have the following structure: Object of the active sentence + has/have + been + past participle form of the verb + by + subject of the active sentence.

Examples :

-          Changing an assertive sentence into the passive

Active: I have sent an order for a digital camera.

Passive: A digital camera has been sent by me.

-          Changing a negative sentence into the passive

Active: I have not received a telegram.
Passive: A telegram has not been received by me.

-          Changing an interrogative sentence into the passive

Active: Have you kept the secret?
Passive: Has the secret been kept by you?

Chapter 4 : Active and Passive sentence in Past form ; Past Simple, Past Continuous and Past Perfect.

·         Active and Passive sentence in Past Simple form. 

1.       Active sentences in the simple past tense have the following structure : Subject + past tense form of the verb + object
     2. Passive sentences in the simple past tense have the following structure: Object of the active sentence + was/were + past participle form of the verb + by + subject of the active sentence 
   
   Examples :

a.       Changing an assertive sentence into the passive

-          Active: They knew it.
Passive: It was known to them.

b.      Changing a negative sentence into the passive

-          Active: She did not know anything about it.
Passive: Nothing about it was known to her.

c.       Changing an interrogative sentence into the passive

-          Active: Where could you find such fine art?
Passive: Where could such fine art be found?

·         Active and Passive sentence in Past Continous form.

1.      Active sentences in the past continuous tense have the following structure: Subject + was/were + -ing form of the verb + object 
     2. Passive sentences in the past continuous tense have the following structure: Object of the active sentence + was/were + being + past participle form of the verb + by + subject of the active sentence 
   
   Examples:
   
   
   a.       Changing a positive sentence into the passive
   -          Active: They were saying their prayers.
   Passive: Their prayers were being said by them.
   b.      Changing a negative sentence into the passive
   -          Active: She was not preparing dinner.
   Passive: Dinner was not being prepared by her.
   c.       Changing an interrogative sentence into the passive
   -          Active: Why were you cheating me?
   Passive: Why was I being cheated by you?
   
   

·         Active and Passive sentence in Past Perfect form. 

1.       Active voice: Subject + had + past participle form of the verb + object
2.       Passive voice: Object of the active sentence + had + been + past participle form of the verb + by + subject of the active sentence
   Examples :

-          Active: I had not listened to him.
Passive: He had not been listened to by me.

-          Active: Had she invited them?
Passive: Had they been invited by her?

Chapter 5 : Indefinite Pronoun  (some-,  any-, no-) and Reflexive Pronoun. 

Use of indefinite pronoun some-, any-, no- 

Indefinite pronouns do not refer to a specific person, place, or thing. In English, there is a particular group of indefinite pronouns formed with a quantifier or distributive preceeded by any, some, every and no.

	Person	Place	Thing
All	everyone everybody	everywhere	everything
Part (positive)	someone somebody	somewhere	something
Part (negative)	anyone anybody	anywhere	anything
None	no one nobody	nowhere	nothing

Indefinite pronouns with  some and any are used to describe indefinite and incomplete quantities in the same way that some and any are used alone.

Indefinite pronouns are placed in the same location as a noun would go in the sentence.

Noun	Indefinite pronoun
I would like to go to Paris this summer.	I would like to go somewhere this summer.
Jim gave me this book.	Someone gave me this book.
I won't tell your secret to Sam.	I won't tell your secret to anyone.
I bought my school supplies at the mall.	I bought everything at the mall.

·         Reflexive Pronoun

A reflexive pronoun indicates that the person who is realizing the action of the verb is also the recipient of the action. While this might seem strange at first glance, the following examples of reflexive pronouns and the accompanying list of reflexive pronouns will help you gain thorough understanding. In fact, you will probably notice that you yourself use reflexive pronouns frequently when speaking or writing.

Examples of Reflexive Pronouns :

-          Someone is sleeping in my bed.

-          No one is sleeping in my bed.

-          He saw something in the garden

-          There is nothing to eat.

Any and the indefinite pronouns formed with it can also be used in affirmative sentences with a meaning that is close to every: whichever person, whichever place, whichever thing, etc. Examples:

-          They can choose anything from the menu.

-          You may invite anybody you want to your birthday party.

-          We can go anywhere you'd like this summer.

Negative sentences :

Negative sentences can only be formed with the indefinite pronouns that include any. Examples :

-          I don't have anything to eat.

-          She didn't go anywhere last week.

-          I can't find anyone to come with me.

Many negative sentences that include an indefinite pronoun with any can be turned into affirmative sentences with a negative meaning by using an indefinite pronoun with no. However, there is a change in meaning with this transformation: the sentence that includes an indefinite pronoun with no is stronger, and can imply emotional content such as definsiveness, hopelessness, anger, etc.

Examples :

-          I don't know anything about it. = Neutral

-          I know nothing about it. = Defensive

-          I have nobody to talk to. = Hopeless

-          There was nothing we could do. = Defensive/Angry

Negative questions :

Indefinite pronouns with every, some, and any can be used to form negative questions. These questions can usually be answered with a "yes" or a "no". Pronouns formed with any and every are used to form true questions, while those with some generally imply a question to which we already know or suspect the answer. Examples :

-          Is there anything to eat?

-          Did you go anywhere last night?

-          Is everyone here?

These questions can be turned in to false or rhetorical questions by making them negative. The speaker, when posing a question of this type, is expecting an answer of "no". Examples :

-          Isn't there anything to eat?

-          Didn't you go anywhere last night?

-          Isn't everyone here?

-          Haven't you looked everywhere?

Some and pronouns formed with it is only used in questions to which we think we already know the answer, or questions which are not true questions (invitations, requests, etc.). Examples :

-          Have you lost something?

-          Are you going somewhere?

-          Could somebody help me, please?

These questions can be made even more definite if they are made negative. In this case, the speaker is absolutely certain he will receive the answer "Yes".

Examples :

-          Aren't you looking for someone?

-          Haven't you lost something?

-          Aren't you going somewhere?

Chapter 6 : Have Something Done and Causative Have

·         Have Something Done.

Have something done is used to show that something is done for us, we do not do it ourselves. What someone does for us. We use have + object + -ed form when we talk about someone doing something for us which we ask or instruct them to do. It emphasises the process/action rather than who performs it:

We’re having the house painted next week. (We are not going to paint the house ourselves. Someone else will paint it. The emphasis is on the fact that the house is being painted rather than who is doing it.

Warning : This pattern is not the same as the present perfect or past perfect.

Compare

I had my hair cut.	Someone cut my hair.
I’ve cut my hair. I’d cut my hair.	I cut my own hair.

We can also use have + object + -ed form when something bad happens, especially when someone is affected by an action which they did not cause:

-          They’ve had their car stolen. (‘They’ are affected by the action of the car being stolen but they did not cause this to happen.)

-          Hundreds of people had their homes destroyed by the hurricane. (Hundreds of people were affected by the hurricane, which they did not cause.)

      Causative Have

      Form : [have + person + verb]

      Use : This construction means "to give someone the responsibility to do something."

      

      Examples:

a) Dr. Smith had his nurse take the patient's temperature. 

b) Please have your secretary fax me the information. 

c) I had the mechanic check the brakes.

Chapter 7 : Determiner

      A determiner is used to modify a noun. It indicates reference to something specific or something of a particular type. This function is usually performed by articles, demonstratives, possessive determiners, or quantifiers. Functions Determiner :

1.       The determiners are used in every case to clarify the noun.

2.       Adjectives, unlike determiners, cannot have corresponding pronouns.

3.       Determiners may be used to demonstrate or define something or someone.

4.       Determiners may state the differences between nouns.

      Each, every, all, little and few is include on quantifiers. Quantifiers are commonly used before either countable or uncountable nouns.

      Examples :

Little knowledge is a dangerous thing.

Every child needs love and care.

You need to read all of the book

Chapter 8 : Question tag

     Question tags are used in conversation to get a (positive) reaction from the person you are talking to. That’s not really difficult, is it? ;o)

        Form

1.         Positive main clause = Negative question tag
2.         Negative main clause = Positive question tag

Examples :

        -  He's a student, isn't he?

        -  You haven't met him, have you?

Chapter 9 : So and Such, Third Conditional

      So and Such

      So is used before an adjective or an adverb: so big – so beautifully designed

      Such is followed by a or an and is used before an adjective + a singular noun: such a long time – such an incredible story

      Such is used alone without the indefinite article a/an before plural nouns and abstract nouns such as information, advice, kindness, interest etc.
Such fools – such beautiful furniture – such generosity
      
      Examples : 

a.       This book is so interesting.
This is such an interesting book.
Such interesting books are worth having.

b.      I was amazed that the crowd was so big.
I was amazed that there was such a big crowd.

c.       The situation was so complicated.
It was such a complicated situation.

d.      She is so intelligent.

      She is such an intelligent person.

      Use of Third Conditional

The third conditional is used to talk about 'impossible' conditions. They are impossible because they happened in the past and we cannot change them.

It is formed in the following way:

If + past perfect, would have + past participle

Example : "If I had known you were going to the cinema, I would have gone too."

Or the structure can be reversed:

Would have + past participle + if + past perfect

Example : "I would have gone too If I had known you were going to the cinema." 
Also note: Would can be replaced by could or might.

Chapter 10 : Direct and Indirect Speech in Present form; Present Simple, Present Continuous, Present Perfect and Present Perfect Continuous.

·         Direct and Indirect Speech in Present form

a.       Simple Present changes to Simple Past

Example :

-          Direct = "I always drink coffee", she said

Indirect = She said that she always drank coffee.

b.      Present Continuous changes to Past Continuous

Example :

-          Direct = "I am reading a book", he explained.

Indirect =  He explained that he was reading a book

c.       Present Perfect changes to Past Perfect

Example :

-          Direct = She said, "He has finished his work"

Indirect = She said that he had finished his work.

d.      Present Perfect Continuous changes to Past Perfect Continuous

Example :

-          Direct = "I have been to Spain", he told me.

Indirect = He told me that he had been to Spain.

Chapter 11 : Direct and Indirect Speech in Past form; Past Simple and Past Perfect. 

Direct and Indirect Speech in Past form.

a.      Simple Past changes to Past Perfect

Example :

-          Direct = "Bill arrived on Saturday", he said.

Indirect = He said that Bill had arrived on Saturday

b.      Past Perfect changes to Past Perfect (No Change In Tense)

Example :

-          Direct = "I had just turned out the light," he explained

Indirect = He explained that he had just turned out the light.

c.       Past Continuous changes to Past Perfect Continuous

Example :

-          Direct = "We were living in Paris", they told me.

Indirect = They told me that they had been living in Paris.

Bab 12 : Direct and Indirect Speech in Future form; Future and Future Continuous. Direct and Indirect Speech in Imperative form.

·         Direct and Indirect Speech in Future form

a.       Future change to Present Conditional

Example :

-          Direct = "I will be in Geneva on Monday", he said

Indirect = He said that he would be in Geneva on Monday.

b.      Future Continuous changes to Conditional Continuous

Example :

-          Direct =  She said, "I'll be using the car next Friday."

Indirect = She said that she would be using the car next Friday.

·         Direct and Indirect Speech in Imperative form

Imperative sentences consist any of these four things:

-          Order

-          Request

-          Advice

-          Suggestion

Most commonly used words to join clauses together are ordered, requested, advised and suggested. Forbid(s)/ forbade is used for the negative sentence.

Mood of Sentence in Direct Speech	Reporting verb in indirect verb
Order	ordered
Request	requested / entreated
Advice	advised / urged
Never	told, advised or forbade (No need of "not" after "forbade")
Direction	directed
Suggestion	suggested to
Warning	warn
(If a person is addressed directly)	called

Examples :

-          Direct speech: He said to me, “please help me”

Indirect Speech: He requested me to help him.

-          Direct speech: She said to him, “you should work hard for exam”

Indirect Speech: He suggested him to work hard for exam.

Bab 13 : Direct and Indirect in interrogative form : Present Simple, Simple Past, Present Perfect, Present continuous, Future and Future Continuous.

·         Direct and Indirect Speech in interrogative.

For changing interrogative (question) sentence into indirect speech we have to observe the nature of question and then change it into indirect speech according to it rules for indirect speech. A question can be of two types. One type which can be answered in only YES or NO and other type which needs a little bit explanation for its answer and cannot be answered in only YES or NO.

Example :

-          Do you like music? (It can be answered in YES or NO)

-          How are you? (It cannot be answered in YES or NO but it needs a little bit explanation i.e, I am fine.)

a.       Questions which can be answered in YES/NO.

To change questions (which can be answered in yes or no) into indirect speech, word “if” or “whether” is used before the question in indirect speech. Rules for change in tense of question sentences are same as for change in normal tenses in indirect speech but sentence will not start with the auxiliary verb of the tense. The word “that” is not used between reporting verb and reported speech as conjunction in indirect speech for question sentence. Question mark is not used in indirect speech.

Examples :

v  Direct speech: He said to me, “do you like music?”

Indirect Speech: He asked me if I liked music. (Not, did I like music)

 Or Indirect Speech: He asked me whether I liked music.

v  Direct speech:  She said, “Will he participate in the quiz competition?”

Indirect Speech: She asked me if he would participate in quiz competition.

v  Direct speech: I said to him, “are you feeling well?”

 Indirect Speech: I asked him if he was feeling well.

v  Direct speech: They said to me, “did u go to school?”

Indirect Speech: They asked me if I had gone to school.

v  Direct speech: He said to me, “Have you taken the breakfast?”

Indirect Speech: He asked me if I had taken the breakfast

b.      Question which cannot be answered in YES/NO.

To change such questions into indirect speech, the words “if” or “whether” is not used. The tense of the question is changed according to the rules for change in normal tenses in indirect speech but sentence will not start with the auxiliary verb of the tense. The word “that” is not used between reporting verb and reported speech as conjunction, in indirect speech for question sentence. Question mark is not used in indirect speech.

Example :

v  Direct speech: He said to me, “how are you?”

Indirect speech: He asked me how I was. (Not, how was I)

v  Direct speech: Teacher said to him, “what is your name?”
Indirect speech: Teacher asked him what his name was.

v  Direct speech: She said to him, “why did you come late?”
Indirect speech: She asked him why he had come late.

v  Direct speech: He said, “when will they come?”
Indirect speech: He asked when they would come.

v  Direct speech: She asked his son, “why are you crying?”
Indirect speech: She asked her son why he was crying.